Over time, these deposits restrict water flow, causing overheating. Additionally, because saltwater flows directly through the engine block, open-loop cooling accelerates corrosion.

However, individuals using a hybrid closed-loop system had a higher rate of ketoacidosis (1.74 events per 100 patient-years) than those using open-loop therapy (0.96 per 100 patient-years).

Payments ecosystems are often categorized as either closed-loop or open-loop systems, each with distinct advantages and limitations. Closed-loop systems, such as single-provider mobile wallets ...