The Physical Layer includes cable specs, pin-out patterns, voltages, hubs, repeaters, network cards, protocol standards (RJ45, V series modem standards) and even host bus adapters (HBA).

Fig. 1: The 7-layer OSI model. Courtesy technology.blurtit.com. Fig. 2. Protocols within the layers. (Courtesy Acturus Networks) Security protocols can be implemented in just about any layer – either ...

1) Physical Layer. This deals with sending bits via analog and digital signals through various means of communication. In this layer, we find protocols like Ethernet, PPP, and Frame Relay, among ...

A couple posts ago, we talked about Layer 1 of the OSI Model — the Physical Layer. Today, we’ll start our climb up the Model with a visit to Layer 2, the Data Link Layer .

The Internet Protocol layer is comparable to layer 3 in the OSI model. The host-to-host layer is equivalent to OSI layer 4. These are the TCP and UDP (user datagram protocol) functions.